ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

COW DUNG AND URINE BENEFACTORS

2009-01-30T04:43:00.000-08:00

Cattle dung is a resource. Our farmers are aware of its use as manure in agricultural fields but for want of alternate cheap cooking-fuel, they are left with no other option except to burn it in hearths. This age-old practice of burning dung cakes in the most inefficient manner should be dispensed with to conserve cattle dung for sustaining, rather improving soil health and in turn agricultural productivity. We are one of the leading countries in developing and promoting biogas technology. Still we have to travel a long way to make full use of this technology for developing our rural areas.
For better results, concerted efforts are needed in dovetailing the biogas programme with the Cattle Improvement Schemes on the one hand and with the Watershed Programme on the other. Good work done by trained masons, technicians, NGOs, etc., should be recognized by organizing healthy competitions at the block and district level and awarding the best performing persons and organisations. Plant owners, using biogas and manure efficiently should also be awarded on an annual basis. Do-it-yourself manual on the operation and maintenance of biogas plants for plant owners, construction manuals for masons, manuals on laying gas distribution pipe line and fixing burners and lamps and operation of duel-fuel engines for technicians, biogas plant users’ manual, etc. should be brought out in regional languages and widely distributed. The use of digested slurry in conjunction with chemical fertilizers should be encouraged to increase the fertilizer use efficiency. Further research data indicate that the use of biogas-slurry manure reduces the adverse affect of injudicious application of pesticides on soils. Therefore, to generate awareness among farmers, field demonstrations on the use of biogas-slurry manure should be organized. Also greater R&D efforts should be made to focus on diversified value added use of manure, e.g. for hardening of tissue cultured seedlings, abatement of soil-toxicity, as a source of micro-nutrients and root stimulant for fruit and vegetable crops, etc.
Several private dairies and gaushalas possess large number of cattle heads and many-a-time face the problem of disposal or use of cattle dung in towns and cities. To overcome this problem, the biogas technology coupled with electricity generation should be promoted with focus on production and marketing of manure.

1. Fuel - cow dung patties (gootte) for cooking
2. Fertilizer - composting makes it even more powerful
3. Heat source - cow dung is naturally hot -compost makes hotter put in glass house to heat glass house or run pipes thru it to get hot water.
3. Purifier - natural antiseptic qualities
4. Floor coating - used mixed with mud and water on floors in mud houses. Improves water absorption of mud. Prevents muddy puddles resulting from spilt water.
5. Mud brick additive - improves resistance to disintegration
6. Skin tonic - mixed with crushed neem leaves smeared on skin - good for boils and heat rash (SP used it for heat rash in Mayapur.)
7. Smoke producer - smoldering cow patties keep away mosquitoes. Can also make smoked paneer over such smoke. Tastes great in pasta! :)
Ash - from patties used in cooking. -
8. Pot cleaner - used dry absorbs oil and fat wet as a general cleaner
9. Brass polisher - tamarind removes oxidation - wet ashes polishes
10. Fertilizer - alkaline - cow dung ash is basically lime with a few other mineral mixed in
11. Mud additive - dries up slippery mud puddles
12. Mud brick additive - mud and lime (cow dung ashes) becomes like cement
13. Pond PH balancer - thrown into pond neutralizes acid.
14. Tooth polish -
15. Sun-dried organic recreational-aerodynamic-device -cow patty Frisbees ;)
16. Fan for fire - large cow patties can be used as make shift fans.
17. Deity worship - ingredient in panca gavya

COWS MILK AND ITS NUTRIENTS

2009-01-15T23:07:00.000-08:00

Why Cow’s milk is Amrit ?
Cow milk has amino acids which makes its protein easily digestible and is good for kidney. Cow milk is a rich source of Vitamins like B2, B3, Vit A which help increasing immunity. Cow milk help in reducing acidity a common problem today and reduces chances of peptic ulcer. Cow milk help in reducing chances of colon, breast and skin cancer. Cow milk help reducing formation of serum cholesterol. Cow milk is one of the best natural anti-oxidants. Cow milk has Potassium which help in development of healthy mind. Cow milk not only help against diabetes but has good sugar for diabetic patients. Cow milk is an ideal food for people of all age groups. Cow milk is best for infant feeding after mothers milk. Low fat content helps one keep fit and to check obesity. Calcium and Phosphorus in Cow milk help in balanced absorption of nutrients and are good for healthy growth specially for children. COW’S MILK IN INFANT FEEDING There is general agreement that breast milk of the mother is the best food for infant, exclusive breast feed for the first 6 months without any additional feed of water is considered ideal for all newborns. However, changing social and cultural patterns in the last 4 decades have led to change from breast to formula feed specially among urban elites and working mothers. In the west, there is again a reversal of the phenomenon and more and more mothers are now preferring to breast feed their babies. There are some factors which influence a mother to start formula feed e.g. employed mother, fear of failure of nursing limitation of the activities and even loss of breast tone. All the above factors are not genuine reason to start formula feeds. However, in following situations breast milk may not be available or contraindicated or need to be supplemented and there is need to search for an ideal milk formula. Conditions where formula feed may be indicated 1. Death of the mother. 2. Serious illness in the mother e.g. HIV/AIDS, human T-cell lymphographic virus type 1 and type 2 and diseases like cancer, severe post partum psychosis. 3. Maternal ingestion of drugs e.g. anticancer, radioactive drugs in therapeutic doses and drugs of abuse. 4. As a supplement to breast milk, formula milk may be used in very low birth weight preterm babies. Comparison of Cow’s Milk and human milk Average values for the various constituents of human milk and the whole fresh cow’s milk are listed in table 1. Both differ during the various stages of lactation and among individuals. However, the differences in human milk from woman with adequate diets are insignificant. Colostrum The secretion of the breasts during the latter part of pregnancy and for the 2-4 days after delivery is called colostrums. This is deep lemon yellow coloured and about 10-40 ml is being secreted per day. Both cow and human colostrums contains very high protein and minerals but less carbohydrate and fat. In addition, human colostrums is rich in immunologic factors which prevent infection in the newborn babies. Colostrum, therefore, is essential for human nutrition and should not be discarded. Water and Calories The relative amounts of water and solids in human and cow’s milk are about the same. The energy value of each milk vary slightly and is approximately 20 Kcal/ounce or 0.67 Kcal/ml. Protein, Carbohydrate and fat Human milk contains only 1-1.5% protein compared to 3.3% in cow’s milk. The increased protein content of cow’s milk is largely due to 6 fold higher content of casein. On the other hand, human milk kprotein consists of approximately 65% whey proteins largely lactalbumins and 35% casein. Human milk contains 6.5-7% and cow’s milk contains 4.5% lactose. The fat contents of both milk are about 3.5%. In human milk, the fat content varies somewhat with material diet and during a single nursing. It is higher in latter part of the feeding (hind milk). The milks of different breeds of cattle vary in fat content. Most market milk specially in urban areas are now pooled and fat content adjusted to a standard level. The quality of fat varies in both human and cow’s milk. The more absorbable fat (Olein) is twice as much in human milk and volatile fatty acids are less in human milk (1.3%) compared to 9% in cow’s milk. Minerals Cow’s milk contains more minerals except iron copper, than human milk. The total mineral content of cow’s milk is 0.7-0.75% in contrast to human milk (0.15-0.25%). Cow’s milk iron content is low and poor bio-availability for infants. Although, the iron content of human milk is also low, the absorption is better. Although the need for calcium and phosphorus is great during period of rapid growth, adequate balances are maintained on breast milk despite its low content of these minerals. Vitamins Vitamin contents of each ;milk vary with the maternal intake. Cow’s milk is low in Vit. C and D. Cow’s milk contains more Vit. K than human milk. Both types of milk seem to contain adequate amounts of Vit.A and the B Complex to meet the nutritional requirements of young infants. Bacterial Content Human milk is essentially uncontaminated by bacteria and is therefore most suitable. Cow’s milk is regularly contaminated with harmful bacterial and is a very good culture media for various organisms. Therefore, terminal sterilization or boiling the milk before feeding is advisable. Digestibility The stomach empties more rapidly after human milk than after cow’s milk. However, no appreciable difference in gastrointestinal passage time exists between human milk and processed milk formulas during the first 45 days of life. The curd of cow’s milk is reduced in size boiling. The fat of cow’s milk is less readily digested than that of breast milk. Growth and Development Objective nutritional studies of growing infants in terms of rate of growth in weight and length, performance in metabolic studies and body composition show relatively very minor differences between infants fed human milk or these fed cow’s milk. However, in developing countries it has been observed that infants fed on cow’s or other formula milk suffer from more morbidities and mortalities than infants fed on human milk. This is not because of the fault in cow’s milk or formula but the technique and the dilution in which cow’s milk is being fed. Milk used in Formulas - Raw milk - Pasteurized milk - Homogenized milk - Evaporated milk - Prepared powdered milk - Condensed milk Conclusion Human milk is the best option for infant feeding. However, in certain situation other milk may need to be used. Cow’s milk is the best alternative option in such a situation. In developed countries fresh cow’s milk is not used in infants less than 1 year and cow’s milk based formula is used. In India, boiled whole cow’s milk is routinely used without any significant problem. The milk should not be diluted and there is no place of bottle in infant feeding. The milk can be given to the newborn and infants with cup and spoon or directly from cup. In developing countries like ;Inida where protein energy malnutrition is very common in children under the age of 5 years, cow’s milk with its high protein content and biological value and easy availability would be extremely beneficial as nutritional rehabilitation of these children.

Table-1: Comparison of Cow’s and Human Milk

	Mature Human Milk	Cow’s Milk
Calories	747	701
Kcal/litre
Protein
gl	10.6	32.46
Casein 3.724.9
Lactalbumin	3.6	2.4
Carbohydrate
Gl

WHY COWS MILK IS AN INDISPENSABLE PART OF BALANCED DIET?

MILK IS THE FIRST FOOD A CHILD TAKES TO SURVIVE. IT IS THE BEST AND MOST COMPLETE OF ALL FOODS.

Milk has always been considered ideal food for infants and children and a good supplementary food for adults. There can not be any substitute for milk. What is a balanced diet? Balanced diet is defined as one which contains a variety of foods in such quantities & proportions that the n maintaining health vitality & general well being & also makes a small provision for extra nutrients to withstand short duration of leanness.

Milk is a fine blend of all the nutrients necessary for growth and development of young once, it’s a good source of protein fats sugar vitamins and minerals.

Cows milk is an integral part of balanced diet due to following reasons:-

1. Availability:

Dietary pattern varies widely in different parts of world depending upon socio economic status, customs, taboos etc. but milk surpasses all these barriers as it is the only food widely available and acceptable.

2. Nutritive value:

Lets compare the nutritive value of cows milk and buffaloes milk. All values are per 100 ml of milk

CALORIES AND PROTEINS:

Cow’s milk provides 67kcl and buffalo milk provides 117kcl of energy per 100 ml. The protein content of cows and buffalo milk is about 3.2gm and 4.25gm per 100ml respectively. The milk proteins mainly consist of casein (about 80%) and whey (about 20%). The proteins of milk are of a high biological value. This low content of protein cows milk from buffalo milk makes it ideal for infants and people with renal disorders. Milk proteins have excellent nutritional quality in terms of their constituent amino acids.

The use of milk proteins as nutritional supplements to enhance dietary protein quality is very feasible as they can provide lysine and tryptophan, the limiting amino acids of wheat and maize proteins.

FAT CONTENT

Cow’s milk contains practically half the fat content of buffalo milk. This reduces the risk of coronary heart diseases. Milk Fat – It’s Good for You! Parodi (1997) succinctly summarized the contribution of cow’s milk fat components as potential anticarcinogenic agents. The best-characterized anticarcinogenic agent presently is conjugated. Iinoleic acid- In mouse models, dietary CLA has been shown to protect against the induction end proliferation of chemically-induced skin, for estomach, colon, prostate and mammary tumors. CLA has drawn a great deal of attention among dairy, medical and nutrition scientists, other components of milk fat also have biological effects with anti-cancer properties. Among these, sphingomeyelin, a component of the milk fat globule membrane, and thus particularly rich in buttermilk, contains the biologically-active components ceramide and sphingosine CLA fed before puberty may impart long-lasting protection against induction and proliferation of tumors.

Research suggests that CLA can decrease the amount of fat in the blood the amount stored in the body.

These effects coculd help in the fight against two other major killers, heart disease and obesity.

CARBOHYDRATES

The main sugar present in milk is lactose. It is less sweet than cane sugar. Lactose favours the absorption of calcium and phosphorous and the synthesis of some B complex vitamins in the small intestine.

VITAMINS

Milk has got valuable amounts of vitamin A, thiamine, riboflavin and nicotinic acid but is a poor source of vitamin C and E. It also contain vitamin 812 which is absent in vegetarian food items. Cows milk has more carotene than buffaloes milk. It is very important for vision. FOLIC ACID PREVENTS ANEAMIA AND NEURAL TUBE DEFECTS IN NEWBORN. A distinct advantage of cows milk over human milk is that it’s a better source of vitamin K which prevents hemorrhagic disease of newborn.

MINERALS

The important minerals of milk are calcium, phosphorous, sodium and potassium. It is a poor source of iron. Less phosphorous content of cows milk allows better absorption of calcium. It is a good source of zinc which is required for synthesis of insulin by the pancreas and for immunity function. While calcium has been the main nutrient of interest in relation to milk and milk products and their effects on bone growth there is also the possibility that other nutrients which are found in milk may be important. Energy and protein modulate bone growth and micro nutrients such as zinc may also have an effect. The form of calcium salt may also be important. It has been prposed that the calcium phosphate in milk may have different mechanistic effects on bone compared to other calcium salts.

Studies show that milk and products may decrease the risk of osteoporosis through their effects on growth.

WATER

Milk contains about 85% water. It thus supplies both food and fluid.

VARIOUS FORMS IN WHICH MILK CAN BE CONSUMED

Unfermented Products:

Skimmed milk is deficient in fats and fat soluble vitamins but the protein, sugar, minerals and vitamin B factors (except pyrodoxine) are well preserved. If skimmed milk power is supplemented with vitamin A, D and pyri doxine, it is a comparatively cheap food of high nutritive value. It is useful for the treatment of malnutrition, the nephritic syndrome and the cirrhosis of liver. The addition of about 6 tablespoons of skimmed milk power during the preparation of chapattis, custard, curd, etc will supply an additional 35 gms of protein.

Toned milk: This is prepared by mixing equal parts of fresh buffalo milk (rich in fats) and reconstituted skimmed milk power. The fat, protein, carbohydrate, vitamin and mineral contents – and thus the nutritive value – are the same as fresh cow’s milk. It is a useful source of proteins for malnourished children and pregnant women.

Double toned milk contains only 1.5% fat.

Khoa (Mava) is milk in which the water content is reduced to between 20% and 25%. It is prepared by vigorously boiling milk, and stirring it continuously to avoid burning at the bottom or overflowing at the top. When cooled, khoa forms a uniform mass, containing fats, heat-coagulated proteins and lactose. Khoa supplies 82 kcal (344 KJ) per table spoon.

Chhana (cottage cheese) is prepared by adding lemon juice to boiling milk; this precipitates casein, lactalbumin and fat. The liquid part (whey) is strained through a cloth and chhana is collected.

Whey is a byproduct of butter and cheese production and is frequently discarded. However, when dried it can be preserved, and forms a good source of nutrition in poorer countries.

Fermented Products:

Dahi (Curd) The mode of preparation of dahi varies considerably, as does its flavour. The flavour depends upon the type of lactic acid organisms predominant in the starter. It has same calorie value as that of milk from which it has been prepared.

Yoghurt is the name given to milk cuddled by a specific type of lactic acid bacillus called Lactobacillus bulgaricus.

Lassi (Butter milk) When dahi is churned with water and fat is removed, the residual acid buttermilk is called lassi. Dahi and lassi can be prepared from whole or skimmed milk.

Ghee (Clarifled butter: Butter-fat) The composition of cow and buffalo ghee is similar: 99% fat, mostly saturated; about 1114 microgms (3800 iu) vitamin A per 100 gms, varying with the exposure of cattle to the sunshine.

Cheese Cottage cheese is an unfermented milk product, but cheese produced commercially in the west is a fermented product. There are over 400 varieties of cheese.

MYTHS ABOUT MILK:-

IS MILK PROTEIN, CASEIN, DIFFICULT TO DIGEST?

When cow’s milk is heated (as in pasteurization), homogenized or acidified to produce a softer curd, the protein is used by infants as efficiently as is the protein of human milk.

IS MILK FAT DIFFICULT TO DIGEST?

Milk fat is considered to be the most complex of all of the common fats and exhibits unique physical, chemical and biological properties not easily duplicated by other fats. It is though that this arrangement contributes to the ease of digestibility of milk fat compared with other fats.

To summarize cows milk is best source nutrition and every effort must be made to channelise the available milk to vulnerable groups like young infants preschool children, pregnant and lactating women.

BIO-PROTECTIVE ROLE OF COW MILK IN HUMAN HEALTH

Cow milk occupies a special position among foods in being an animal food that has a vegetarian connotation. Milk carries many nutrients that the infant needs for growth and development. For children, adolescent, elderly people pregnant and nursing mothers, milk plays an important role in meeting the requirements of many essential nutrients, and hence milk is considered as a protective food. Milk helps to balance human diet by supplementing good quality protein, calcium and vitamins particularly, vitamin A, riboflavin, niacin and folic acid. In addition milk contains several bio-protective molecule that ensure health security to humans.

Nutritional quality of milk proteins

Milk proteins are rich in essential amino acids. The Protein Efficiency Ratio (3.1), Biological Value (91) and Net Protein Utilization (82) of milk protein are very close to that of egg proteins (3.8, 100 and 94, respectively). Lactalbumin is superior to casein having Biological Value (BV), Net Protein Utilization (NPU) and Protein Efficiency Ratio (PER) 100, 92 and 3.6, respectively. The corresponding value for casein are 77, 76 and 2.5, respectively. Only 14.5g of lactalbumin or 28.5g milk proteins is sufficient to meet the daily requirement of essential amino acids for adult humans.

Supplementary value and digestibility of milk proteins

Because milk proteins contain a surplus of certain essential amino acids (lysine and threonine), they can raise the BV of vegetable proteins. Milk proteins can be added to cereal based products to increase their lysine and threonine content. Whey proteins have even better supplementary value and can raise the BV of soy proteins because of their high concentration of sulphur amino acids. Whey obtained as a by- product in cheese manufacture has thus a great potential for incorporation in cereal based products.

The digestibility of milk proteins is rated higher (96%) then that of plant proteins (74-78%). Because of their high BV, the milk proteins are useful in the diet of patients suffering from liver and gall bladder diseases, hyperlipidaemia and diabetes. Patients with impaired kidney functions rely on protein with high BV for relieving strain on the excretory function of the kidney. The milk proteins are also used in slimming diets.

Milk fat and misconceptions about its role in coronary heart diseases (CHD)

Milk fat has often been implicated in CHD because of its cholesterol content and composition of its fatty acids. It is however, not correct to judge the implication of milk fat in development of CHD solely on the basis of its fatty acid composition and cholesterol content. The average cholesterol content in cow and buffalo milk is only 2.8 and 1.9 mg/g fat respectively. Moreover, humans absorb 10-14% of dietary cholesterol, thus Only 20-40 mg cholesterol will be absorbed from 50g of dietary milk fat. On the other hand, the body itself synthesizes cholesterol (1-4g daily) in much higher amounts than what is absorbed from the diet.

The so called "Lipid hypothesis" states that there is a connection between fatty acid composition of the diet and cholesterol content of serum in that the saturated fatty acids (SFA) increase cholesterol and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) decrease it. Since increased cholesterol levels are believed to play a role in the development of CHD, the demand is often made that the dietary fat having low proportion of PUFA be replaced with oil that are rich in PUFA. The question that naturally arises is should one avoid milk or milk fat because it contains high content of saturated fat. The major saturated fatty acids in milk fat are palmitic acid (24-28%), myristic acid (13-14%) and stearic acid (11-12%), and the major unsaturated fatty acid is oleic acid (23-28%). Milk fat has high proportion of short and medium-chain saturated fatty acids, which do not raise serum cholesterol levels, nor does oleic and stearic acid. Only palmitic and myristic acid has some effect. The idea that excess of SFA and/or cholesterol were associated with the development of CHD arose from epidemiological association between high total and animal fat intake, high serum cholesterol levels and incidences of CHD, in some countries. The conclusion made from such empirical studies have been criticized by many researchers in that the population that consumed fat with higher PUFA/ SFA ratio also consumed less calories from sugars and total fat.

Regarding the role of PUFA in decreasing cholesterol levels and preventing heart diseases, it has not been proven unambiguously. On the other hand, the recommendations advocating for increasing intake of PUFA have been questioned. There is an increasing evidence that excessive intake of PUFA is harmful in that it may lead to (1) formation of gall stones due to increased production of bile acids (2) increased requirements for vitamin E, (3) increased formation of peroxides which may cause alteration in membrane of blood corpuscles, (4) oxidation of PUFA enriched LDL increasing susceptibility to atherosclerosis and (5) higher incidences of colon tumours due to colonisation of the intestine with bile degrading bacteria, since the excessive intake of PUFA increases the excretion of cholesterol in the form of bile acids. It is, therefore, unjustified to raise the hope that cardiac infracts could be prevented by a diet rich in PUFA. An excessive intake of energy, resulting in excess weight is one of the major reasons of altered cholesterol metabolism and atherosclerosis. Indeed, a diet containing optimum amounts of calorie and essential nutrients, wherein the type of fat has no significance, is a real safeguard against high mortality from atherosclerosis.

Nutritional benefits of milk fat

Compared to other fats and oils, milk fat is easily digestible. The digestibility of milk fat is 99%, while that of natural palm oil is 91%. The excellent digestibility of milk fat is due to dispersion of fat globules in the aqueous phase of milk forming an emulsion. They are absorbed directly unlike other dietary fats that have to be emulsified by bile, pancreatic enzymes and intestinal lipases before they can pass through intestinal well. Also, milk fat is rich in short and medium-chain fatty acids, which are more easily absorbed than long chain fatty acids. The ester bonds involving short-chain fatty acids are more easily cleaved by lipases. The easy digestibility of milk fat makes it a valuable dietary constituent in diseases of stomach, intestine, liver, gall bladder, kidney and disorders of fat digestion.

In infant and child nutrition, milk fat is of immense benefit. It helps them in meeting their energy requirements by increasing energy density of the diet. A sufficient fat supply is essential for thriving babies, a rosy and smooth skin and also resistance to bacterial infections.

Milk fat has a low content of essential fatty acids (EFA), linoleic and linolenic acid. The EFA requirement is only 3% of total calories, two-third of which is met from invisible fat present in dietary cereals, pulses and vegetables. Therefore there is no justification to replace milk fat with another fat having a higher linoleic acid content.

Milk is a rich source of vitamins

Milk is a rich source of vitamins not only in terms of their contents but also their better bioavailability. Milk is one of the richest natural sources of riboflavin (vitamin B₂). A 250 ml serving of cow milk contains riboflavin equivalent to 50% of the daily requirement of a pre-school child. Although milk contains only small amounts of preformed niacin (Vitamin B₃), nevertheless, it is a very good source of this vitamin. Niacin can be synthesized in the body from tryptophan, which is present in milk proteins in good amount (480 mg/L). Sixty mg tryptophan is metabolised in the body to give rise to one mg niacin. Indeed, milk is used as dietary ingredient for patient suffering from pellagra, a niacin deficiency disease. For vegetarian, milk is sole natural source of vitamin B₁₂, as this vitamin is present only in animal foods. Milk is also a good source of folic acid. Vitamin A deficiency is a major cause of widespread blindness among children in India. A 250 ml serving of cow milk contain vitamin A sufficient to meet 75% daily vitamin A requirement of pre-school child.

Milk is a richest natural source of calcium

Recent research has shown that poor nutritional status with respect to calcium is related to diseases like osteoporosis, hypertension and colon cancer. The hypertensive patients have shown significant reduction in blood pressure in response to increased calcium intake. The effect of calcium on blood pressure is mediated by (1) increase in urinary excretion of sodium, (2)) preventing the rise in vitamin D hormone which increases blood vessel resistance (3) relaxing smooth muscle cells which lines the blood vessels (4) suppressing the renin-angiotensin system and (5) increasing production of endothelial relaxing factors.

Introduction of increased dietary calcium through dairy products has been shown to reduce incidences in colon cancer and hyper-proliferation in the colonic mucosa in rodents. Calcium produces these effects by neutralizing deconjugated bile acids and free acids, thereby removing their mitogenic/ toxic influence.

Milk and dairy products are the most important source of calcium in readily available form. A 250 ml serving of cow milk contains calcium equivalent to 60% of ICMR’s Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for adults. Incorporation of milk in the diet also improves the bioavailability of calcium from vegetable foods. The factors that contribute to better availability of calcium from milk include lactose, protein and phosphorus.

A part of calcium in milk is associated with phosphorylated casein. The casein phosphopeptides, released in the gastrointestinal tract during digestion, form soluble complex with calcium phosphate salts and improves the diffusion of calcium across the intestine. Milk is rich in phosphorus that reduces urinary calcium excretion, and counter balances, at least in part, the calciuric effect of dietary proteins. Milk and most dairy products, except some processed cheese, have a near 1:1 calcium to phosphorus ratio considered to be ideal for retention of calcium in the body.

Therapeutic properties and extra-nutritional role of milk constituents

Milk proteins have high buffering power; therefore it is useful in the treatment of inflammation of mucous lining of stomach and of stomach ulcers, preventing hyperacidity. Milk and milk products are used as a source of proteins in hyperuricaemia and goat disease. In contrast to other foods, these do not contain purines, which are precursors in the synthesis of uric acid that causes gout when deposited in the joints or may lead to formation of urinary calculi.

Short and medium-chain fatty acids with 4-12 carbon atoms, which occur in a relatively high concentration in milk fat are reported to have antibacterial and fungicidal activity against gram negative bacteria and certain moulds. Milk fat has a protective effect against human tooth decay. This effect has been ascribed in part to adsorption of milk fat onto the enamel surface and in part to antimicrobial effect of milk fatty acids.

Protective effect of milk fat against some types of cancer (colon, breast and skin) has recently been reported. Fat in general is regarded as increasing cancer risk, although not for all types of cancer. However, a specific fatty acid (a cis-trans isomer of linoleic acid) has been identified in milk fat, which appears to be an inhibitor of cancerous growth.

Immunological aspects of proteins

The substances in milk which have an antimicrobial effect are immunoglobulins, lactoferrin, lysozyme, lactoperoxidase and vitamin B₁₂-binding protein. The immunoglobulins, mainly 1gA are not broken down by the digestive enzymes. Thus, they not only act against the microorganisms in the intestine but also prevent the absorption of foreign proteins.

Lactoferrin is an iron binding glycoprotein that occurs in cow milk at a level of 0.2 mg/ml. Mother's milk contains large amounts of lactoferrin (0.1-0.2g/100 ml). Lactoferrin plays an important role in the resistance against intestinal infection, particularly Escherichia coli. Lactoferrin has both bacteriostatic and bactericidal properties. The bacteriostatic effect is of lactoferrin is due to its iron binding ability making iron unavailable for iron requiring bacteria. Mother's milk also contains a large amount of an unsaturated vitamin B₁₂-binding protein, which competes with bacteria that have a vitamin B₁₂.

A number of enzymes are also involved in the milk immune system. These are lactoperoxidase, xanthin oxidase and lysozyme. Lysozyme has a direct effect by breaking down the cell wall of gram-positive bacteria. The lactoperoxidase-thiocyanate-H₂O₂ system is an antibacterial system. Lactoperoxidase and thiocyanate are found in milk and other tissue secretions, and H₂O₂ is produced by lactic acid bacteria or by the action of xanthin oxidase. Thiocyanate is oxidized by H₂O₂ and lactoperoxidase to an intermediate product that destroys the microorganisms.

Functional peptides

Many milk-derived peptides possess functional properties. Several peptides with opium like (sleep inducing) activity have been extracted from the degradation products of milk proteins. These include ß-casomorphins (from ß-casein), exorphin (from µ_S1 casin), ß-lactostensin (from lactoglobulin) and serorphin (from serum albumin). These opium-like peptides have been shown to prolong gastrointestinal transit time exerting anti-diarrhoeal effect. They also stimulate secretion of insulin and somatostatin.

Glycomacro peptide (GMP) derived from K-casein induces production of cholecystokinin, a hormone associated with satiety. GMP and other fractions of K-casein digest inhibit the adhesion of oral actinomycetes and streptococci to erythrocytes, and binding of cholera toxins to its receptor.

Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) located in different tissue, splits two amino acids from C-terminal end of angiotensinogen I converting it into angiotensinogen II, which is a highly hypertensive octa-peptide. Peptides with anti-hypertensive activity that act through inhibition of ACE have been identified in the sequence of bovine and human ß-and µ_S1 casein. Recently µ-lactalbumin and ß-lactglobulin fragments that inhibit ACE have also been characterized.

Several immune-stimulatory peptides have been identified from both bovine and human casein and whey proteins. These peptides have been shown to stimulate the phagocytic activities of murine and human macrophages and enhance resistance against certain bacteria. Certain peptides from casein stimulate the production of immunoglobulins.

Casecidin, a chymosin digest of casein in vitro, inhibits Sarcina, Bacillus subtitis, Diplococcus pneumoniae and Streptococcus pyrogenes. Similarly, fragments of human ß-casein have a protective effect against Klebsiella pneumoniae. Iracidin, an µ_S1-casein fragment has both therapeutic and prophylatic effect. Lactoferricin, an acid-pepsin digestion product of lactoferrin, has stronger bactericidal activity compared to the native molecule.

Milk has cholesterol lowering factors

Several studies have shown that milk reduces serum cholesterol levels of the consumers. Experiments with volunteers have shown that cholesterol levels do not rise when as much as 2 litres of milk is consumed daily. On the contrary, the cholesterol level is reduced. Both decreased formation and increased breakdown of cholesterol are responsible for the cholesterol lowering effect of milk. Orotic acid and another nucleotide associated with proteose-peptone fraction of milk proteins and calcium are suggested to have cholesterol reducing properties. Milk slows down the biochemical processes leading to atherogenesis in rabbits fed on atherogenic diet. It has been suggested that the regular intake of milk keeps blood vessels healthy.

Therapeutic role of milk sugar

Lactose, the principal milk sugar, is slowly metabolised and therefore, a considerable portion of it passes into the large intestine where it promotes the growth of lactic acid producing bacteria. Lactic acid creates a desirable condition that inhibits the growth of proteolytic and putrefying bacteria in the intestine and replaces them gradually with acidophilic bacteria.

Several investigations have shown that lactose promotes the utilization of calcium, magnesium and phosphorus. The acidic condition created by fermentation of lactose by intestinal bacteria may increase the solubilization and absorption of calcium. Part of the effect may also be due to the ability of lactose to form soluble complex with calcium. Since lactose is slowly absorbed, it has slight laxative effect. It is due to lowering of the pH that increases the peristalsis of the intestine. The blood glucose does not rise rapidly on lactose diet. Milk consumption, therefore, enables the diabetic person to obtain the biologically highly valuable milk proteins without running the risk of rise in blood glucose levels.

Milk production and per capita availability

India is the largest producer of milk in the world. Milk production in the country was 22.5 million tons in 1970-71, and is now projected to reach 88.5 million tons in 2001-02. Despite increase in population, per capita availability of milk in the country has increased from 114 g per day in 1970-71 to 231 g per day. Milk production enhancement programmes like Operation Flood, artificial insemination, cross breeding, better animal health care and improved feeding practices has led to white revolution in the country. ICMR recommends inclusion of 150 g milk in a balanced Indian diet. The per capita availability of milk is above ICMR recommendations in most of the states, except in north-eastern states, Orrisa and Bihar, and marginally low in Andhra Pradesh.

PUBLIC HEALTH AND COW MILK

Introduction

Milk is one food for which there seems to be no adequate substitute. Man uses milk of many animals as his food. The cow is the most important of all these animals as supplier of food. However, buffalo and goat milk are also used by some communities.

Nutritive Value

Milk is a complex mixture of lipids, carbohydrates, proteins and many other organic compounds and inorganic salts dissolved or dispersed in water. The most variable component of milk is fat followed by protein. The composition of milk varies with the species, bread, diet, lactational period and interval between milkings.

Milk has a very good quality protein and the biological value is over 90. Though milk contains only 3 – 4% protein, due to the rich quality of protein and the amount that can be ingested and the presence of other nutrients, makes it indispensable. Lysine is one of the essential amino acid which is abundant in milk protein. Cheese, Khoa and dehydrated milk powders are concentrated forms hence contain high amount of nutrients per unit.

The fat of milk is easily digestible. It contains linoleic acid (2.1%), linolenic acid (0.5%) and arachidonic acid (0.14%). Diary foods are a major source of calcium because of significant amount of minerals present. The calcium : phosphorous ratio (1.2:1) in milk is regarded as most favourable for bone development. In addition dairy products contain other nutrients such as vitamin D and lactose which favour calcium absorption.

Milk is not only used as such but many products, fermented and non-fermented are used in cookery. Nutritive value of different milk products are as follows

Importance of milk in the diet is evident from the above discussion. Adequate amount of milk should be included in the diet specially for infants, young children and women.

National Family Health Survey – 2 (NFHS-2) has shown that about 45% of married women had either occasionally or never had milk or curd in their diet.

Percent Distribution of Married Women (1998 – 1999)

There is also wide variation among states. Women in Haryana and Punjab consume milk or curd at least once a week, whereas women in Manipur and Arunachal Pradesh consume milk or curd regularly.

All India Institute of Hygiene and Public Health conducted a nutrition survey in six states of India under the National Pilot Programme on Control of Micronutrient Malnutrition, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Govt. of India. This survey was conducted in one district of each of six states, namely Assam, Bihar (Jharkhand), Orissa, West Bengal, Tripura and Gujarat.

The study indicated that consumption rates of milk and milk products were much less than the recommended dietary allowances (150 mg/acu/day) as recommended by ICMR.

Consumption rates of milk and milk products in different surveyed states were found to be as follows :

Recommended Dietary Allowances – 150 mg

It is observed that consumption of milk and milk products is most inadequate.

Because of its high nutritive value, milk should be consumed specially by young children, pregnant and lactating mothers, old age people etc. If there is intolerance for ordinary milk, milk products may be consumed. It contributes to the total nutritive value of the diet.

Therefore, necessary steps need to be taken to encourage more intake of milk by making the dairy system strong (health and well looked after animals, proper processing etc.), ensure better availability and access, reduce cost so that it is affordable and lastly motivate people by making them aware. Milk can help in improving the overall nutritional status of the vulnerable population in a significant manner.

COW'S MILK A NOVEL SOURCE OF MICROBIAL WEALTH

The microbial world is a microcosm whose activities are of central importance to the biosphere. Microbial products contribute to environment, plant, public, and soil health. There is a striking diversity of microorganisms in their ecological and physiological specialisations. They have evolved to cope with and flourish in almost every niche, no matter how inhospitable. Microorganisms also form a range of associations with other microbes and with other plants and animals. They can be pathogens, parasites, symbionts, commensales and saprophytes, and thus, their ecological influence infiltrates into all trophic levels of life and gamut of possible ecosystems. Microbes have proved an exceptionally rich source of new products, and there is every indication that they will continue to be so in the future. Therefore, exploration of biodiversity for novel microbes which are ecologically significant or are of economic value is of importance. This has prompted microbiologists to continue to search for novel useful microbes from sources that remain uncharacterised.

India is one of the few countries in world, which has contributed richly to the International livestock gene pool and improvement of animal population in world. Cattle and buffalo contribute nearly 15% of the gross national income. The country possesses 23% of world bovine population. According to Hindu mythology as well as the Indian traditional medical practices (both the classical systems like Ayurveda and Siddha and the oral practices of the rural villagers) cow's milk has rejuvenatory health protecting and health promotery properties and hence has been said as the best one among vitalisers [Caraka-Samhita, Editor-translator P. Sharma, Chaukhambha Orientalia, Varanasi, India, volume 1, p. 213 (1981)]. Milk may be defined as the normal secretion of the mammary gland of the mammals. Milk as it is secreted by the gland of the mammals is free of microorganisms. However, microorganisms associated with the teat move up the teat canal and into the interior of the udder [J.C. Olsen and G. Mocquot. Milk and milk products. In: International commission on microbiological specifications for foods. Microbial ecology of foods. Food commodities. Vol. 2. New York: Academic Press (1980) pp. 470-486]. This causes even aseptically drawn milk to contain microorganisms, mostly bacteria. Bacteria in aseptically drawn milk are usually limited in number and include mostly micrococci, lactococci, staphylococci, streptococci, and bacillus [F.L. Bryan, Journal of Food Protection, Volume 46, pp. 637-649 (1983); R.A. Ledford. Raw milk and fluid milk products. In: Applied dairy microbiology. Eds. E.H. Marth and J.L. Steele, New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc. (1998) pp. 55-64].

It has been known for the past more than four decades that many of the bacteria that occur commonly in milk find it a relatively unfavourable medium and it would thus appear that milk has pronounced selective properties [T. Gibson and Y.A. Abd-El-Malek, Canadian Journal of Microbiology, Volume 3, pp. 203-213, (1957)]. Thus the bacterial flora that have invaded in the teat and/or udder must have the persistence ability for survival and multiplication, under these suboptimal conditions. Therefore, work on the milk described pertains to bacterial flora persisting in the teat and/or udder, which have gained entrance into the aseptically drawn milk, in our attempt to search for novel microbes, from an ecological niche that remain uncharacterised.

Improving soil fertility is one of the most common tactics to increase agricultural and forest production. We have isolated plant beneficial bacteria from cow milk. Inoculation of seeds or soil with beneficial microorganisms for crop improvement has been practised for a number of years. A variety of mechanisms have been identified as being responsible for such plant growth promoting activity. For example, certain microorganisms indirectly promote plant growth by inhibiting the growth of deleterious microorganisms; or directly enhance plant growth by producing growth hormones; and/or by assisting in the uptake of nutrients by the crops, e.g., phosphorus (P) [C.S. Nautiyal et al., FEMS Microbiology Letters, Volume 182, pp. 291-296 (2000)]. However, a major factor in the unsuccessful commercialisation of bioinoculants has been the inconsistency of field test results as their establishment and performance are severely effected by environmental factors especially under stress conditions encountered in soil e.g., salt, pH, and temperature. Therefore, it would be desirable to provide stress tolerant bacterial strains as bioinoculants [C.S. Nautiyal, Biocontrol of plant diseases for agricultural sustainability. In: Biocontrol potential and its exploitation in sustainable agriculture. Volume 1, Eds. R.K. Upaahyay, K.G. Mukerji, and B.P. Chamola, Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York (2000) pp. 9-23]. Plant growth promoting microorganisms include but are not limited to Rhizobium, Pseudomonas, Azospirillum, and Bacillus etc.

While work on microbiology of the milk so far has been on psychrotrophic bacteria because of their importance in milk and dairy products [M.A. Cousin. Journal of food protection. Volume 45, pp. 172-207 (1982); R.A. Ledford. Raw milk and fluid milk products. In: Applied dairy microbiology. Eds. E.H. Marth and J.L. Steele, New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc. (1998) pp. 55-64], no bacterial strain has been previously found from cow which has the ability to control phytopathogenic fungi, promote plant growth, tolerance for abiotic stresses, solubilise phosphate under abiotic stress conditions. Accordingly, there has been no clear indication heretofore that any bacteria isolated from cow might act as a biocontrol agent, and certainly no showing of direct, bacterial-mediated stimulation of plant growth per se. Nevertheless, a bacterial strain capable of promoting plant growth, tolerance for abiotic stresses, solubilise phosphate under abiotic stress conditions, if one were isolated, could find immediate application, e.g., in soils affected by phytopathogens, poor nutrient availability like phosphorus, and environment stresses etc., did not result in a desired improvement in crop development, additionally, no procedure for the selection of such bacterial strain has been reported. We have found by direct comparison on a variety of plant types that the unique combination of selected bacterial strains is effective in the enhancement of plant growth and health.

Our work relates to method for screening useful bacteria from the milk of human, Sahiwal cow, Holestien cow and buffalo and application thereof for promoting plant growth. Six hundred bacterial strains were screened for their ability to inhibit growth of plant pathogenic fungi Colletotrichum falcatum, Sclerotium rolfsii, Alternaria solani, Penicillium sp., Pythium aphanidermatum, Phytopthora palmivora, Curvularia lunata, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, and Aspergillus niger under in vitro conditions as follows: Four single bacterial colonies on NA plates were streaked around the edge of a 90-mm diameter petri plate and the plates were incubated it at 28oC for two days. An agar plug inoculum of the fungi to be tested (5-mm square) was then transferred to the centre of the plate individually from a source plate of the fungi. After incubation for 5 to 7 days inhibition zones were readily observed in the case of bacterial strains having the biocontrol activity as the fungal growth around the streak was inhibited. While in case of bacterial strains not having biocontrol activity, fungal growth around the streak was not inhibited and the fungi grew towards the edge of the plate. We have discovered that % of bacterial strains showing biocontrol activity against phytopathogenic fungi was maximum in Sahiwal cow, followed by human, Holestien cow and buffalo (Table 1). From this parameter milk of Sahiwal cow was superior to human, Holestien cow and buffalo. The 3 strains Bacillus lentimorbus NBRI0725, Bacillus subtilis NBRI1205, and Bacillus lentimorbus NBRI3009 isolated from Sahiwal cow milk have the ability to control phytopathogenic fungi and promote plant growth under field conditions, tolerance for abiotic stresses, and solubilise phosphate under abiotic stress conditions.

India has the largest area under sugarcane among cane growing countries of the world. Its sugar industry ranks as the second major agro-industry in the country. Press mud is a "waste" product obtained during sugar manufacture. Many of these sugar mills uses yeast to ferment molasses for producing ethyl alcohol. Spent wash, a distillery effluent of the fermentation process along with press mud are considered as pollutants and therefore can not be disposed off into the environment. We have invented a process of manufacturing plant growth enhancer which utilises press mud and/or spent wash as a raw material. Fermentation of press mud and/or spent wash, using bacteria isolated from Sahiwal cow milk results into an value addition product, useful for enhancing growth of plants. Our plant growth promoting microbes propagates well in the fermented press mud. The following procedures were performed to utilise sugar factory sulphitation press mud and distillery spent wash as carrier for preparing at commercial scale, after its fermentation using consortium of of our novel microbes. About 300 tons of fresh sulphinated press mud, obtained while clarifying sugarcane juice with lime and sulphur dioxide, is laid out on cemented floor with width of 2.5 meter, 1.5 meter tall, and length of 150 meter windrows. The press mud was churned and homogenised, either manually or by the help of an aero tiller before adding 150 kg consortium i.e., 500 gm of the consortium/ton press mud, and mixing again. Within 2-3 days, temperature of the windrow goes up to 70-75^oC. Thereafter, the windrows are churned twice a day and spent wash is sprayed on daily basis to maintain 55-65% moisture, for up to 40 days. After about 40 sprays the spraying of spent wash is stopped and windrows regularly turned for 3-5 days to reduce the moisture of the fermented product to about 30%. Usually after 45 days, the temperature of the windrow goes down to 40-45^oC. The product at this stage is totally fermented and ready for its application. The procedures for fermenting sugar factory carbonation press mud as carrier for preparing at commercial scale, using consortium is same as described for sulphinated press mud, except water was used instead of spent wash, to maintain the moisture during fermentation

Press mud like any other organic manure affects the physical, chemical and biological properties of the soils. It also helps to increase water stable aggregates in soils. Our product significantly enhances plant growth of wide range of plants representing economically important horticulture, floriculture, and agronomic crops in the range of 10-60%. Table 1 show increases in the number of tillers, plant height, girth of cane, millable cane, and cane yield inoculated with our consortium, compared with un-inoculated control. We have developed the technology using novel microbial synergistic mixture of microbes isolated from Sahiwal cow's milk and cost effective manufacturing procedures. The technology has been exclusively developed in view of the usage of raw materials available at sugar factory which makes our procedure sugar factory friendly and highly cost effective. Global patent application (NF404/2001) has been filed by Council of Scientific & Industrial Research for our invention. Agricultural and environmental industry would therefore clearly benefit from our simple, less expensive method of microbial inoculants for plants, seeds and soil as it may help in economising crop production and maintenance of soil structure, fertility and healthy ecosystem. Collectively these activities will determine the ability of the soil to sustain plant production.

BIODIVERSITY AND INDIAN COW BREEDS

2009-01-09T03:38:00.000-08:00

BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity is a valuable asset for every country. It is widely recognized that preservation of biodiversity is a matter of insurance and investment necessary to sustain and improve agriculture, animal husbandry, forestry, fisheries and honey production and to keep open future options as a buffer against harmful environmental change and as a raw material for scientific and industrial innovation and a matter of moral principle (Anonymous, 1981).
According to the Annual Report (1997) of the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, India’s immense biological diversity is estimated to be over 45,000 plant species and 81,000 animal species, representing about 7% of world’s flora and 6.5% of world fauna, respectively.
Biodiversity is providing the basis for life on earth, which includes the variability of animals, plants, microbes, soil, water, air, climate, etc. It includes inter alia, lower plants (including bacteria, viruses and mycoplasma like organisms), higher plants (herbs, shrubs and trees), animal breeds including fish, birds and invertebrates. Based on natural resource categories, it is further classified into forests, crop-lands, rangelands and aquatic environment. All these flora and fauna are used directly or indirectly for food and agriculture, feed for domestic animals and also for the provision of essential raw materials and services for life support such as fibre, fuel, fertilizer and pharmaceuticals. Hence biodiversity makes ecosystem stable, functional and environmentally sustainable.
The very biodiversity that nurtured human cultural diversity since times immemorial now stands threatened. In fact, the present era is often described as an era of species extinction. The rate of species loss is as fast today as it was at the time of extinction of dinosaurs some 6.5 crore years ago. Nearly 15 per cent of Earth’s species will be threatened over the next 25 years, if we neglect them.
Life on Earth began in some very simple form more than 300 crore years ago. In the course of adapting to the varied environment on Earth, these first unicellular organisms have become complex, resulting in the rich variety of life as we presently know it.
Every animal on Earth belong to a place where it is born, where it finds its food, where it joins with its mate, gives birth to its young, and where it dies and becomes food for other living things. The place where an organism is able to do all this, defined by the prevailing climate, availability of water, nature of soil and rock, is its habitat. Theory of evolution thus tells us that organisms evolve to fit into their natural environment.
Cattle Diversity
The animal genetic resources make a large contribution to food and agriculture production, but this resource is now being threatened. Important diversity is being lost, thereby reducing the options for achieving sustainable agriculture and food security. Animals are intricate part of agro-eco-systems, providing food, energy, manure and fuel. They provide 60% of draught power for the rural communities and can provide a critical safety net for farmers and communities when crop fails.
There is already less genetic variation in farm animals as compared to the plant species. Further erosion of animal diversity may invite disaster for long term productivity and loss of sustainability. Therefore, genetic improvement in farm animals adapted to different stress conditions like, food, fodder and climate must be based on the utilization of locally adapted genetic resources.
Proximate process affecting domesticated biodiversity:
Causes:
· Lack of awareness
· Economic benefits
· Overall policy of breed improvement
· Shrinkage of grazing land
· Over population of livestock-high density
· To improve yield and economic benefits
· Replacement of local non-descript breeds to productive cattle
· Over mechanization of agriculture & transport
Process
· Inadequate attention on identification of germplasm and performance recording
· Indiscriminate cross breeding with exotics for other purposes
· Commercialization
Effects:
· Stagnation and even deterioration of production performance of indigenous breeds
· Loss of indigenous genetic resources
· Forest denudati
· Disappearance of native varieties and breeds
· Threat to native draught breeds
· Loss of indigenous biodiversity
· Shrinkage and even disappearance of grass-lands lead to loss of biodiversity
· Grassland ecosystem is disturbed
· Degradation of forest land and erosion of soil and water

Cattle Conservation Activities
The conservation of domestic cattle biodiversity is a complex and multi-dimensional activity in which number of agencies can play significant role. Different measures of conservation should be implemented through national and state-level strategies, plans and programme developed, keeping in view the social and cultural diversity, ecology, farming practices, present level use, sustainability and economic use. Thus all ;these issues should be carefully harmonized. The cow-biodiversity sector of the country is to be conserved and a national and state-level implementation of breeding policy of the country as well as the State may be drawn as early as possible. Selective breeding in their home tract of pure indigenous draught breeds must be undertaken and preserved very carefully and sincerely. Upgradation of local non-descript cattle by known indigenous breeds like, Hariana, Gir, Tharparkar, Sahiwal, etc. in selected pockets be started.
Indian Council of Agricultural Research Institutes and State Agricultural Universities should be asked to start immediately selection of local breeds and keep minimum 1000 adult cows and males of each breed available in their jurisdiction for breeding and draught purposes in each farm. The existing good Goshalas, Panjrapoles, Private and Institutional Cattle Farms should be registered and promoted with incentives to build up best selected cows of different pure breeds of the region as National Demonstrative Cattle Breeding Farms. Ex-situ conservation of Cattle Genetic Resources should be set up through establishing cow or cattle germ plasm repository or gene banks at different locations by the National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resource s of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research.
All life, plant or animal, must be consecrated and bestowed with protection by human-being and that is our goal, meaning thereby that none should be victims of slaughter or cut. Reverence for life, love and respect ought to be ingrained in our very existence. Cow protection signifies reverence and protection for all mute life, i.e. in the present day parlance, “total preservation of the Biosphere and Ecology”.

DEVELOPMENT OF INDIGENOUS COW BREEDS

Introduction:
Economy in India is predominantly agricultural with more than 70% of its population is dependent on income from agriculture and allied activities. Next to crop production, Animal Husbandry is the most important activity in rural India. Some 70 million rural house-hold own livestock of one species or the other – 60 million among them own cattle and or buffaloes. Almost two-third of these families owning livestock are the most resource poor- small and marginal farmers and landless agricultural labourers. Income from livestock amounts for 30 to 50% of the rural house-hold income, with vide variations between regions and house holds. An extensive nation wide study carried out by the NCAER in 1990 found that revenue from milk sale alone amounted for 33% of the family income (National average). Over 80% of the main agricultural work force of 185 million were involved with livestock production either as a producer or hired labour. While total rural employment has grown at the annual rate of 1.75% and in all agriculture at 1.1%, employment in livestock sector has risen at much higher rate at 4.5%.
India stands first with respect to the bovine population having 1/5th of the world bovine population. In spite of India’s position as highest producer of milk, productivity per animal is very poor. It is only 987 Kgs/lactation as against 2038 Kgs/lactation as the world average. This reflects the low productivity of our animals. This is mainly due to poor plane of nutrition as well as low genetic potential for milk production and health care. Feed and fodder constitutes most important input in livestock farming. That the genetic potential of milk animals are not optimally expressed has been proven through nutritional studies that milk production can be increased by 20 to 30% by improved feeding alone.
In 1992 country had 204.58 million cattle and 84.21 million buffaloes, giving almost 1.75 cattle and buffalo unit per hectare of available land. There is acute shortage of nutrients for our livestock and presently gap is about 40 to 50%.
Trends in cattle population:
Cattle rearing in India has been a tradition and intimately linked to agricultural economy. India with 204.58 million cattle, had 15.97% of the world cattle population. Between 1987 and 1992 cattle population grows at an annual growth rate of 0.48%. Out of the 204.58 million cattle, 15.21 million were crossbreed cattle, which is 7.43% of the total cattle population. Between 1987 and 1992, crossbred grows at the rate of 5.92%. During 1992, 57.79 million is the milch cattle population and contributing 26.57 million tonnes of milk i.e. 41.64% of the total milk production in the country.
The changes within the cattle population over the last two decades indicate a radical shift in the priority of the farming community from production of work animals to milk production. The proportion of the female in the population increased steadily with 1972 as turning point. Between 1972 and 82, the number of working male in cattle population declined sharply (by 12 million) and among females the proportion of adult females increased (63% in desi and 61% in crossbred) gradually. However the the proportion of desi cows steadily declined and a marked phenomenal growth in the number of crossbred. Total crossbred number grew from 8.80 million in 1982 to 11.59 million in 87 (31.70%), and 15.21 million (31.32%) in 1992.
In the northern region desi cow population has declined substantially and the region now accounts for 40% of all crossbreds in the country. The South has the second largest population of crossbred cattle –34% followed by west – some 15% of the crossbred. Eastern region has the highest proportion of desi cows and lowest percent of cross breds (11%). Among the States, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Kerala and Punjab have the largest number of crossbred cattle and together they account for nearly 65% (9.50 million) of all the cross bred cattle population in the country in 1992. (Table 1)

Table 1: Cattle population trend in India ( Million No)
Species/category
1987
1992
Annual Growth rate
Total cattle
199.69
204.58
0.48%
Indeginous cattle
188.28 (94.29%)
189.37 (92.57%)
0.12%
Breedable female cattle
60.93 (30.51%)
62.68 (30.64%)
0.57%
Milch cattle
55.91 (27.99%)
57.79 (28.25%)
0.62%
Cross bred cattle
11.59 (5.80%)
15.21(7.43%)
6.2%
Source: Basic Animal Husbandry Satistics Ministry of Agriculture DAH&D

Cattle genetic resources:
The cattle genetic resources of India are represented by 30 well recognized breeds. Most of the cattle breeds are suited for draught power but produce little milk. Indigenous animals are sturdy, are endowed with quality of heat tolerance, resistance to diseases and ability to thrive under extreme nutritional stress. These breeds are classified into three categories – milch breeds, like Shaiwal, Red Sindhi and Gir which calves between 40 to 50 months and produce 1000 to 2000 lts in a lactation and have a calving interval of 15 to 18 months, duel purpose breeds like Tharparkar, Hariana, Kankrej. Rathi, Ongole, Deoni, Gaolao, which first calve between 45 to 55 months, produce between 600 to 1500 lts of milk and have a calving interval between 15 to 20 months, draft breeds like Kangayam, Hallikar and Khillari. The remaining 80% of the cattle are non descript which first calve at an age of 60 months, and produce about 500 Kgs in a lactation and have a calving interval between 20 to 24 months (Table-2).
Table 2:Produtivity performance of some Indian cattle
Breed
Age at first calving
(month)
First calving interval(days)
First service period (days)
First lactation milk yield
First lactation length
Hariana
51
(41-49)
497
(434-523)
214
(136-303)
916
(730-1170)
267
(257-315)
Sahiwal
41
(38-48)
473
(418-473)
177
(136-189)
1907
(1597-2125)
314
(228-330)
Tharparkar
43
(39-53)
447
(418-474)
160
(130-183)
1877
(1326-2139)
300
(268-317)
Red Sindhi
44
(39-49)
496
(436-562)
154
(152-158)
1476
(1312-1694)
305
(284-354)
Gir
53
(44-61)
511
(456-541)
176
(135-259)
1498
(1125-1859)
293
(230-394)
Ongole
39
(36-42)
553
(529-637)
226
(210-241)
826
(658-999)
279
-
Deoni
51
(47-55)
466
(456-472)
184
(173-192)
943
(818-1041)
293
(282-302)
Figure in parenthesis gives range of trait
Some of these breeds have enormous potential to become high producing commercial milch animals, and there is a need for the development of these breeds. Pre-requisite for the development of a breed are large enough population size, a wide selection differential for economic traits.
The indigenous dairy breeds of cattle with potential for development as commercially viable milch animals in a comparatively few generation are: Sahiwal in Punjab, Rathi and Tharparkar in Rajasthan and Gir and Kankrej in Gujarat. If these breeds are selectively mated with genetically selected bulls (through siblei and progeny testing) individuals of these breeds would be commercially viable in just one generation and the breeds as a whole in few generations.
Problems and constraints in Cattle Production:
Cattle which is the major constituent of our livestock population is facing newer challenges which are needed to be addressed promptly and adequately to bring in rapid improvement in cattle population.
Large cattle population and its low productivity per animal demanding stabilization of cow population.
Limitations of feed resources both in terms of qualitative and quantitative terms.
Lack of availability of vaccines and diagnostics in required quantity at affordable prices.
Lack in creation of disease free zones.
Prevalence of communicable diseases.
Lack of technology for proper utilization of cow waste specially cow dung and Urine which has important medicinal values.
Lacking policy for conservation of dwindling indigenous cattle breeds.
Lack of farmers organizations and breeders societies in the country.
Absence of effective extension network.
Breeding policy:
Animal husbandry programmes have been run through the State schemes. Each State has to evolve its own breeding policy deciding on choice of breed, cross breeding strategy, optional mixture of animals of different breeds required, breeding goals in terms of expected genetic progress to be achieved, specific breeding programmes and the control measures that should be adopted to achieve the desired genetic gains in the population.
General parameters in the breeding policy formulated by various States are:
Indigenous milch breeds such as Shaiwal, Red Sindhi and Gir, should be selectively developed for dairy traits in their native tracts.
Indigenous dual purpose breeds such as Hariana, Tharparkar, Rathi, Kankrej, Gaolao, Ongole Deoni etc. should be developed selectively in their native tracts for dairy and draft traits.
Indigenous draft breeds like Kangayam, Hallikar, Khillari, Amrit Mahal etc. should be developed selectively for draft traits in their native tract.
Non-descript cattle will be bred with exotic semen to produce cross breed with Holstein Friesian or jersey and maintaing 50% exotic impenitence. In some States Red Sindhi, Tharparkar and Hariana have also been used upgrading non-descript cattle.
Cattle breeding policy in different States is given in the Annexure I.
Development of indigenous breeds:
To develop indigenous breeds Government of India has initiated three schemes namely National Project for Cattle and Buffalo Breeding, Central Herd registration scheme, Central Cattle Breeding Farms.
National Project for Cattle and Buffalo Breeding:
Genetic improvement is a long term activity and Government of India has initiated a major programme from October 2000 “National Project for Cattle and Buffalo Breeding”(NPCBB) over a period of ten years, in two phases each of five years, with an allocation of Rs 402 crore for the 1stphase. National Project for Cattle and Buffalo Breeding envisages genetic up gradation on priority basis and also had focus on the development of indigenous breeds.
The National Project for Cattle and Buffalo Breeding envisages 100 per cent grant in aid to implementing agencies and has the major objectives of (a) to arrange delivery of vastly improved artificial insemination service at the farmers doorstep; (b) to progressively bring under organized breeding through artificial insemination or natural service by high quality bulls, all breedable females among cattle and buffalo within a period of 10 years; (c) to undertake breed improvement programme for indigenous cattle and buffalo breeds so as to improve their genetic qualities as well as their availability and (d) to provide quality breeding inputs in breeding tracts of important indigenous breeds so as to prevent the breeds from deterioration and extinction.
The project components specially designed to address the existing inadequacies will focus on the hitherto neglected natural meting system as well as the A.I. network with particular attention to (a) streamlining storage and supply of Liquid Nitrogen by sourcing supply from industrial gas manufacturers and setting up bulk transport and storage systems for the same, (b) introduction of quality bulls with high genetic merit, (c) promotion of private mobile A.I. service for doorstep deliver of A.I., (d) conversion of existing stationery government centres into mobiles centres, (e) quality control of bulls and services at sperm stations, semen banks and training institutions, (f) study of breeding systems in areas out of reach of A.I. and (g) institutional restructuring by way of entrusting the job of managing production and supply of genetic inputs as well as Liquid Nitrogen to a specialized autonomous and professional State Implementing Agency. At the Central Government level a Central Project Management Unit (CPMU) with a core group of professional staff implements the Project. There is broad based Steering Committee for the project to provide guidance to the CPMU.
At present Following 15 States are participating under the project and following funds has been released to these States for implementation of the project:
NPCBB has been included in the Tenth Five Year Plan with a tentative allocation of Rs 400 crore. Provision in BE (2002-2003) is Rs50.00 crore.
Table 3: State wise funds released under NPCBB
Rs in lakh
S.No
State/UT
2000-2001
2001-2002
Total
released
Amount release specifically for indigenous breed development
Indigenous Breed development
1.
Andhra Pradesh
339
741.75
1080.75
75.00
Ongole
2.
Arunachal Pradesh
140
0
140

-
3.
Chattisgarh
0
274
274

-
4.
Haryana
523
323
846
20.00
Hariana
5.
Kerala
0
209.75
209.75
25.00
Vechur
6.
Madhya Pradesh
0
829.47
829.47
25.00
Malvi, Nimari, Kenkatha
7.
Manipur
67.75
0
67.75

-
8.
Mizoram
0
18.93
18.93

-
9.
Nagaland
0
97.3
97.3

-
10.
Orrisa
0
40
40

-
11.
Punjab
501
0
501

-
12.
Rajasthan
0
559.3
559.3
25.00
Rathi, Gir, Tharparkar
13.
Sikkim
0
168.93
168.93

Siri
14.
Uttranchal
0
248
248

-
15.
WestBengal
0
677.02
677.02

-

Total
1570.75
4187.45
5758.2

B CENTRAL CATTLE BREEDING FARMS (CCBF)
There are seven Central Cattle Breeding Farms (CCBFs) located at Alamadhi(Tamil Nadu), Andeshnagar (U.P), Chiplima and Semiliguda (Orissa), Dhamrod (Gujarat), Hesserghatta (Karnataka), and Suratgarh (Rajasthan). They are producing high pedigree bull calves of indigenous and exotic breeds of cattle and important buffalo breeds for distribution to States for use in the cattle and buffalo development programmes. The bull calves are produced from Tharparkar, Red Sindhi, Jersey, Holstein Friesian and Crossbred cattle, Surti and Murrah buffalo breeds. The Farm at Andeshnagar and Chiplima are producing HF x Tharparkar crossbred and Jersey x Red Sindhi crossbred bulls respectively. The bulls and bull calves are for sale and distribution to the State Governments.
The Production of Bull calves (Nos.) is as under during the 9th five year plan period:
Year
Target
Achievement
1997-98
330
346
1998-99
330
321
1999-2000
300
449
2000-01
350
362
2001-02
350
370

Central Herd Registration Scheme:
For identification and location of superior germplasms of cattle and buffaloes, propagation of superior genetic stock, regulating sale and purchase, help in formation of breeders societies and to meet requirement of indigenous bulls in the different parts of the country. Government of India has initiated Central Herd Registration Scheme. Four CHRS units were established in different breeding tracts of the country. For milk recording 103 milk recording centers were set up. Indigenous cattle breeds covered under the scheme are Gir, Kankrej, Hariana and Ongole. During 2001-2002 final registration for 1795 animals were completed. The criteria laid down for registration is given in table-4
Table4: Criteria for registration under CHRS
Breed
Milk yield in Kg’s
Category-I
Category-II

Gir
3500 & above
3000 to 3499
Hariana
2700 & above
2500 to 2999
Kankrej
3000 & above
2700 to 2999
Ongole
2500 & above
2250 to 2499

Conclusion:
Although cross breds are economically viable but the F 2 populations have shown deterioration and decrease in milk yield. To maintain the performance of these cross breds at desired level, large number of progeny tested bulls are required. Indigenous breeds can be made commercially viable within few generations and there is no organized efforts have been made to improve the genetic potential indigenous breeds. Cross breds are more productive as compare to indigenous breeds but their tendency to wilt under Indian conditions of low input and harsh climate, susceptibility to tropical diseases warrants the conservation and development of indigenous breeds. Usefulness of various indigenous breeds has not been fully explored. The non-renewable energy resources are bound to exhaust sooner or later if this happens then we may have to fall back on our animal wealth for providing draught power and hence we can not take risk of letting these breeds go extinct. The domesticated breeds are integral part of our eco-system, culture and heritage. Thus there is imperative need to develop our indigenous breeds for milk production, draught power etc.
Cattle Breeding Policy in different States
S.No
State/UT
Breed
Breeding Policy

1
Anhra Pradesh
Ongole
Selective breeding in Ongole: grading up, non–descript with Ongole

Malvi
Selective breeding Malvi in pockets, grading of Malvi with Tharparkar and Deoni

Hallikar
Selective breeding in Hallikar; grading up of nondescript with Hallikar

Non-descript
Grading up, with Ongole, Tharparkar and Deoni cross breeding with Jersy and Holstein
2
Arunachal Pradesh
Local cattle
Grading up, with Hariana and Redsindhi cross breeding with Jersy
3
Assam
Local cattle
Grading up, with Hariana and Redsindhi; cross breeding with Jersy
4
Bihar
Local cattle
Grading up, with Tharparkar Hariana and Redsindhi; cross breeding with Jersy
5
Chattisgarh
Local cattle
Grading up, with Tharparkar Hariana and Shaiwal; cross breeding with Jersy and Holstein
6
Gujarat
Gir, Kankrej
Selective breeding in Gir and Kankrej; grading up, non–descript with Gir and Kankrej; cross breeding with Jersy and Holstein-Friesian
7
Goa
Local cattle
Grading up, with Redsindhi; cross breeding with Jersy
8
Haryana
Hariana
Selective breeding

Shaiwal
Selective breeding

Non-descripit
grading up, non–descript with Hariana, Shaiwal, Tharparkar; cross breeding with Jersy and Holstein-Friesian.
9
Himachal Pradesh
Local cattle
Grading up, with Hariana and Redsindhi; cross breeding with Jersy
10
Jammu & Kashmir
Local cattle
Grading up, with Hariana and Redsindhi; cross breeding with Jersy
11
Jharkhand
Local cattle
Grading up, with Tharparkar Hariana and Redsindhi; cross breeding with Jersy
12
Karnataka
Deoni
Selective breeding

Krishna Valley
Selective breeding

Khillari
Selective breeding

Amrit Mahal
Selective breeding

Hallikar
Selective breeding

Non-Descript
grading up, non–descript with Redsindhi; cross breeding with Jersy and Holstein-Friesian.
13
Kerala
Local cattle
grading up, non–descript with Redsindhi, Kangayam and Tharparkar; cross breeding with Jersy and Holstein-Friesian.

Crossbreds
Selective breeding with F1 cross bred bulls obtained from progeny tested either jersy or Holstein bulls
14
Madhya Pradesh
Nimari
Selective breeding

Malvi
Selective breeding

Kenkatha
Selective breeding

Non-descript
Grading up, with Gir, Tharparkar, Hariana Shaiwal and Ongole; cross breeding with Jersy and Holstein

S.No
State/UT
Breed
Breeding Policy

15
Maharashtra
Khillari
Selective breeding

Dangi
Selective breeding

Gaolao
Selective breeding

Nimari
Selective breeding

Non-descript
Grading up, with the breeds of the region and Hariana; cross breeding with Jersy and Holstein
16
Manipur
Local cattle
Grading up, with Red sindhi; cross breeding with Jersy
17
Meghalaya
Local cattle
Grading up, with Red sindhi; cross breeding with Jersy
18
Mizoram
Local cattle
Grading up, with Hariana; cross breeding with Jersy
19
Nagaland
Local cattle
Grading up, with Hariana; cross breeding with Jersy
20
Orrisa
Local cattle
Grading up, with Red sindhi and Hariana; cross breeding with Jersy and Holstein
21
Punjab
Local cattle
Grading up, with Shaiwal and Hariana; cross breeding with Holstein Friesian and Jersy
22
Rajasthan
Nagori
Selective breeding

Malvi
Selective breeding

Rathi
Selective breeding

Non-descript
Grading up, with Hariana, Gir, Tharparkar and Rathi; cross breeding with Jersy and Holstein Friesian
23
Sikkim
Siri
Selective breeding

Local cattle
Grading up, with Hariana; cross breeding with Jersy
24
Tamilnadu
Kangayam
Selective breeding

Hallikar
Selective breeding

Umblachery
Selective breeding

Bargur
Selective breeding

Non-descript
Grading up, with Hallikar; cross breeding with Jersy Holstein Friesian
25
Tripura
Local cattle
Grading up, with Tharparkar; cross breeding with Jersy
26
Uttar pradesh
Kenkatha
Selective breeding

Non-descript
Grading up, with Hariana, Shaiwal, Tharparkar and Red sindhi; cross breeding with Jersy and Holstein Friesian
27

COW – AN INDIAN PERSPECTIVE

Cattle population during the last decade has come down from 20,45,84,000 in 1992 to 17,49,74,000 in 1997. Livestock census report 2002 is yet to be published. But it is presumed to be nearly 15,00,00,000 only.
Throughout the country, the cow is considered auspicious and held in great veneration, for by means of this animal, tillage is carried on, the sustenance of life is rendered possible and the dining table of the inhabitant is filled with milk, butter-milk, butter and ghee. These cows and progenies graze in the forest and pasture lands in the village boundaries and eat different grasses, medicinal herbs, leaves and seeds of bushes and trees and through their dung the seeds of these plants are spread throughout the land and forest. These treated seeds with proper manorial cover germinate as soon as the monsoon set in and grow faster. This way the cows and calves spread and disperse different types of plant species, including medicinal and aromatic plants everywhere. The birds sitting on the body of the cattle eat the ticks and other insects and they also eat the seeds coming through the dung and thus help in spreading the grasses and other bushes in the land.
The milk, butter, butter-milk and ghee produced from these cows grazed in the forest land with numerous species of grasses, herbs, bushes and trees have better nutritive and medicinal values.

As per the paper presented, at the National Seminar on “Role of pure Ghee in Health and Nutrition – exploding myths” on 13-14 June, 2002 held at Anand, by Dr. Prasanna Mathad and Dr. N.A. Murthy, Taranatha Government Ayurvedic Medical College, Anantapur Road, Bellary the quality and quantity of ghee will depend upon the land, feed, fodder, water and environment. They have quoted:
“To improve the quality of milk and milk products, we should feed the cows by giving:
(1) Grasses like, Ikshuvalika, Darbha (Cynodon dactylon), Kusha (Desmostachya bipinnata), Kasha (Saccharum spp), Gundra, Etkat and Katrana mulos
(2) Vegetable and cereal wastes grown on marshy land
(3) Jeevanti (Leptadena reticulata) and Shatavari (Asparagus Racemoces) improve the milk as per research conducted by veterinary scientists of Gujarat”.

In Koutilya’s Arthashastra, he mentions that the green grasses, food grains, oil cakes and water from the ever-green forest or lands are more potent than that of the dry areas. He stresses, the quality and quantity of milk depend upon the land and clime too. On the basis of the “Samanaya Vishesha Siddhanta” the properties which are similar one increase the dhatu of similar characters or properties”.
The factory-style cow-keeping industries, now firmly entrenched in industrial countries have environmental side effects that stretch along production line from growing the vast quantities of feed grain to disposing of the mountains of manure. In developing regions meanwhile most cattle farming continue to be raised as a sideline to crops. Yet complex economic and social forces lead to mismanagement of herds, causing extensive and sometimes irreversible degradation of dry-lands and destruction of forests.
Domesticated animals have played a prominent role in the human economy for thousands of years, providing food, fuel, fertilizer, transport and clothing. During most of this time, their presence was largely beneficial. Indian livestock carry about half of all goods to market and they plough the fields too. But in the last century, the numbers and impacts of livestock have swelled space with human population and affluence. Since mid-century of 2000, human numbers have doubled to 5.4 billion (540 crore) while the number of four legged livestock (cattle, sheep, goats, horses, buffaloes, camels and pigs) has grown from 2.3 billion ( 230 crore) to 4 billion ( 400 crore). The world’s most populous countries, China and India, are also the livestock titans. India is browsed by an estimated 10.70 crore goats, 17.50 crore head of cattle and 7.40 crore of buffaloes. Australia has an average of 10 sheep for every person, for a world leading total of 16.50 crore.
As per the ancient seers of the Vedic period, life is a non-divisible, homogenous wholeness. There is no hierarchy between the different species inhabiting the planet – all are fellow beings of one another and have to share the resources of the planet. All the species have to live together and share life in every sense of the term.
Agriculture is not an industry or a profession ;in our country. It is an expression of reciprocity between the earth, the skies, the sun, the moon, the human, the animal and the plant kingdom. Hence agriculture will have to be supported by cattle raising, individually or collectively. It will have to be supplemented by cottage and village industries with the help of alternative energies and appropriate technologies.
The cow is the supreme animal before us supplying bullocks for tillage and ;for traction, supplying manure for growing of crops, providing energy for cooking and lighting, providing urine for environmental purification, plant protection and treatment to human ailments and supplying milk for the human subsistence.
Our fore-fathers had recognized the importance and usefulness of the cattle and they have developed different breeds of them for dual purpose, i.e. milk and draught purposes, according to the prevailing environment and ecology in different parts of the country. We have thirty recognized breeds of cows (list enclosed) and many dozens of non-descript breeds. They have specific uses and utilities in their own regions.
Approximately 80 per cent of the 17.50 crore cattle population of India belongs to the category of small-framed, light weight and non-descript Zebu breeds (DESI). The remainder consists of clearly defined, predominately local breeds as mentioned above and those consolidated by selection and crossing between these and the indigenous breeds as well as though to a small extent, some high performance imported breeds of Jersey, Holstein Friesian, Brown Swiss, Red-dane, etc. There seems to be no dearth of genetic potential among the local breeds. Thus the development of the Indian breeds of cattle population may be reckoned as guaranteed. Our ancestors were intelligent enough to produce a particular breed for a particular use in a particular region. The main objectives and features were:
· High traction capacity for the transport for which e.g. Haryana and Ongole were bred.
· Speedy traction for ;the artillery carrier for which Khillari and Hallikar breeds were bred, and developed.
· Apart from providing bullock draught labour also milk supply in large army camps and settlements for which Tharparkar, Gir, Red-Sindhi and Kankrej breeds were developed.
· High milk productivity along with draught ability – Gir and Sahiwal breeds were created..

These aims laid a foundation for the future breeding activities in the country and offered guidelines with regard to the overall economic utility of those mentioned above and many other breeds.
Development will have to be based on the massive resource of land, plants and trees, water, air, animal’s and human-power or else we will stray with no success.

ONGOLE

2009-01-04T03:18:00.000-08:00

The Ongole breed, like other breeds of cattle in India, takes its name from the geographical area in which it is produced.

Origin
It is also called the Nellore breed for the reason that formerly Ongole Taluk, a division of a district, was included in the Nellore district, but now it is included in the Guntur district. The area is part of the Andhra Pradesh in India. This breed is included among the gray-white cattle of the north, having white or gray color, stumpy horns and a long coffin-shaped skull. It has a great similarity with the Gaolao breed of Madhya Predesh and also has a resemblance to the Bhagnari type of cattle in the north of India.
This similarity is not surprising in view of the fact that these breeds lie along the path taken by the Rig Vedic Aryans in their march from the north to the south of India. It is claimed that the finest specimens of the breed are found in the area between the Gundalakama and Alluru rivers in the Ongole and Kandukur taluks, and also in the villages of Karumanchi, Nidamanur, Pondur, Jayavaram, Tungtoor and Karvadi and along the banks of River Musi. They are also famous from the taluks of Vinukonda and Narasraopet.
Characteristics
The Ongoles are large-sized animals with loosely knit frames, large dewlaps which are fleshy and hang in folds extending to the navel flap, and slightly pendulous sheaths. They have long bodies and short necks; limbs are long and muscular.
The forehead is broad between the eyes and slightly prominent. Eyes are elliptical in shape with black eyelashes and a ring of black skin about 1/4 to 1/2 inch wide around the eyes. Ears are moderately long, measuring on an average for 9 to 12 inches, and slightly drooping.
Horns are short and stumpy, growing outwards and backwards, thick at the base and firm without cracks. In some animals the horns are loose; this is probably due to the horn core not growing well. The hump in the males is well-developed and erect and filled up on both sides and not concave. The skin is of medium thickness, mellow and elastic and often shows black mottled markings.
The popular color is white. The male has dark gray markings on the head, neck and hump and sometimes black points on the knees and on the pasterns of both the fore and hind legs. A red or red and white animal of typical conformation is occasionally seen.
They have a white switch of the tail, white eyelashes, a flesh colored muzzle, light colored hooves, dark gray marking on the hindquarters and dark mottle appearance on the body.

Ongole cattle are efficiently used in their native home for both work and milk production. They are usually docile and the bulls are very powerful, suitable for heavy plowing or car work but are not considered to be suitable for fast work or trotting purposes. The cows are fair milkers.
All animals currently used for food and agriculture and the result of Domestication from wild progenitor species like their wild relatives. These Domestic species are continuously evolving albeit at an accelerated rate due to human activity.
In general the history of cattle followed the history of man, where even either primitive or modern. Man has migrated he has tended to bring with him his own breeds of cattle. During vedic period many of the useful animals have been brought under service of man, particularly
Milk became useful since Rigvedic period. The selected those animals species that are having vigor, inborn nearness, social ability and docility.
The evolutionary process has been accelerated in the domestic species particularly cattle, as a consequence of 10,000 years of selection by human, during this period with in the species genetic variation which is essential for the survival of all species, has been partially redistributed in the formation of the large number of unique cattle breeds now exists.
These breeds have adopted too many environments as the breeds spread and have been used to produce different types and combinations. A major group of mammals to be domesticated after caprinae were the large ruminants (Bovinae), which included the humped (Bos indicus) and hump less (Bos Taurus) cattle, yak, mithun, banteng and buffalo.
This range of species in the family Bovinae make a very large number of important contributions to food and agriculture, providing just under 30% world meat and 87% world milk. This Bovinae provided the planet with a means of digesting via fermentation.
Same types of zebu animals are present from the time of Indus Valley civilization dating back to 3000 BC Indian subcontinent is a treasure house of Bos-Indicus Cattle.
Farmers in the breed tract has selected and preserved each successive variation, with the distinct intention of improving and altering a breed, in accordance with a preconceived idea, and by thus adding up variations, often so slight as to be imperceptible to the uneducated.
He has effected wonderful changes and improvements in the direction he desired as we see here under in Ongole Breed from 1880. There is a tendency in the breed to grow leggy with sparse light carriage, but their form, temper and endurance earned nearness to the breeders.
Effect of heat loads on Ongole cattle
Radiation:
Solar radiation received from sun is through solar terrestrial. The amount of radiation emitted for a particular location depends on global positioning, latitude, and longitude.
Infrared radiation is intense in tropics, having sterilizing effect, stimulates tissues, increases metabolic processes. Non-pigmented skin has a definite hazard. 85% of solar radiated heat is sent back to the environment by the Ongole animal through its white, reflective coat.
Diurnal variations such as seasons, humidity, latitude, altitude, influences variation in radiant heat loads. The rest 15% of heat immediately absorbed by the under lying black skin.
When the animal has nine blacks, total body skin will be black these cattle reduces heat load through behavioral means, and postural adjustments, also orientation towards sun make it protect its own parts through shade and thus reducing heat loads.
Long legs of this breed helps in minimizing absorption of solar radiated heat. Light carriage also helps are exposed to sun.
Conductive and convective heat loads on these cattle transfer between surroundings and direct contact through soil and bedding, drinking water, feeds and fodders. Avoiding lying down stretching its body parts also helps.
Light is the most constant factor having vigor. Light influences on pituitary, shedding of hair on seasons, increase in metabolism, vision. High light intensity decreases cell wall content and increases water-soluble carbohydrates in vegetation and thus influences livestock.

Relative Humidity:
% of moisture in air is humidity. Air moisture content influences animals heat balance particularly in warm climates where evaporative cooling is crucial to homeothermy. High humidity associated with high temperature favors less nutritive value of feeds and fodders, of ten the stock are light colored, with pigmented skins, and shade lovers.
These influence humidity aerial movement, transpiration, rainfall and temperature.
Characters associated with hardiness and thriftiness:
1) Has the ability to reverse down metabolism during extremes of scarcity.
2) Efficient forager and does not force the calf for foraging.
3) Fruitful in milk with exact fat percentage to keep the calves at rapid growth.
4) Tight sheath and small teats to avoid injuries of grazing animals.
5) Sloppy rumps are suitable for quick and hard work, having 4 sacral vertebrae.
6) Have more number of bigger, functional, sweat glands per unit area of the skin.
7) Having white or light colored, short, sleek, densely, reflecting and glistering coat, which will not attract vectors and dislodge them with insulting character.
8) Skin, pigmented, black, mellow, loose, thick and presence of subcutaneous panniculus carnosis muscle, which repels vectors by twitching.
9) Highest heat tolerant coefficient.
10) Basal metabolic rate low.
11) Nutritional uniqueness, ability to convert low protein, high fiber roughage materials into high-grade foodstuffs with the aid of Omasal symbionts, such as thrives and performs well on inferior fodders.
12) Crude protein utilization is highest.
13) Perform well where even pastures are seasonal, scanty, and sparse.
14) Spent much time in grazing even during daytime, seek shade only 3% of their total grazing time.
15) Slow to cycle, when under nutritional stress or lactation stress, but response to cycle is immediate when nutrients are plenty.
Ongole Breed Tract:
Originally the breed tract comprises areas where there is no assured or commercial crops, leaving cattle raising as the only profitable proposition by selling bull ghee (Clarified butter), since crops and cultivation are not profitable.
The farmers are quite aware of the food, investment, manure, forage, draught animal power and employment linkages, improving through subsistence security, transfer of nutrients, modification of vegetation and finally increasing the human support capacity of the land through Ongole breed of cattle.
These cattle raising formed a part of risk education strategy with agriculture, as livestock is a saving account and their calves are interest.
The farmer is quite conscious of the herd management policy options on direct costs and indirect costs, breeding, off take, purchase and culling. It clearly indicates this breed is originally dairy, later transformed as dual purpose i.e., dairy and draft animals, presently mostly a draught animal.
The breed tract comprised between rivers Krishna on Northern side, Pennar River on Southern side, nalamalai range of forest on Western side and Coromandai coast on Eastern side lying between 15.00 to 16.10’ east latitude and 79.04’ to 80.02’ north longitude.
The rivulets gundlakamma, madigandi, Paleru, Muneru, Musi, Chilakaleru. Whose extensive banks became excellent grazing areas. With population growth and consequent demand for cereals the Brahmini bull selection system has been oriented towards draft characters.
The soils are black loam to black clay having large quantities of lime with soil pH of 6.9 to 7.2 most favorable for notification bacteria and luxuriant growth of legumes. Annual rain fall of about 900mm with about 50 rainy days out of which 2/3 roads are from southwest monsoon and 1/3 from northeast monsoon supporting most of the cereal crops.
The average ambient temperature of maximum 32 degrees Celsius and minimum of 23.5 degrees Celsius and average relative humidity of 79%.
After formation of Krishna and Godavari Ayacuts during 1850’s with assured irrigation and increased demand for draft services, the breed tract extended to Krishna, Godavari and northern circars.
Original tract is for breeding and extended tract for breeding and rearing, further ceded districts and Nalgonda and Mohaboob Nagar districts as rearing tracts. Extension of breed tract forced for 2 reasons.
The demand for draft services from the area and generally the same species need the same resources and thus are bound to complete for the same, except when they are colonizing a new habitat, as such expansion of the tract.
Ongole Cattle Breeding:
Before organized efforts of the colonial rule, the institution of Brahmini Bull system in the ongole area has substantially improved the breed by avoiding inferior breeding and inbreeding.
It has been the custom in the area that dedicating a young bull selected by a village committee funded by village rich men or the local diety and the bull being branded at a ceremony either with Sanku, Chakra, Trisul, then becomes common property and Brahmini bull is the property of the village and covers the village herd, this is how a small farmer provided the stud services.
The changes in cropping pattern from cereals to commercial crops like chillis, and Tobacco during the 1930’s and cotton during 1960’s have badly affected the breeds feed resources.
With the introduction and expansion of artificial insemination programs rapidly has resulted in affecting the distribution of breeding bulls under various schemes have been stopped and there is decay in the institution of Brahmini Bull system which primarily supported the breed for centuries.
During 1960’s introduction of Taurus breeds through aid programs has helped large scale indiscriminate breeding in the valuable Ongole herds. Like all other resources, the livestock wealth should also to be carefully and properly utilized and preserved.
Planners in an attempt to improve milk production in Ongole cattle did many mistakes. One major error was the perception that output reflects efficiency, Hence the use of exotics on Ongoles to improve indigenous stock. Output was very often the main criteria for which a breed was imported.
Finally after sinking in a lot of money and time, we could learn that genetics is only one and often not the main tool that can ensure greater efficiency of output. Husbandry, survival, health, reproduction efficiency of feed utilization parameters becomes important.
In a craze for cross breeding the excellent government herds built up for decades were also not spared by the planners. The saying that breeding policy should depend on animal, existing production potential, anticipated, goals, environment, man and economic development rather than prejudice, taste and trivial dictates.
Character associated with disease resistance:
a) Premunity high.
b) Reticulo endothelial system well developed.
c) Resistant to eye cancer.
d) Through their coating, insulating, secretary characters are more resistant to tick born diseases.
e) Zebum secretion is fly repellent.
f) Flexible tail tip, having cartilage in place of last 3 or 4 vertebrae helps as a brush to repel vectors.
g) The effects of climatologically variables on Ongoles are varied. High external heat load due to both radiant and high air temperature exposure depends on degree, and duration.
On acute exposure the animal tries to accommodate rather than combat. As a routine the metabolic heat and the catabolic heat produced with in the body also needs to be eliminated.
When heat loss mechanism reaches its maximum values the animal resorts to methods of reducing heat production in an effort to achieve homoeothermic.
Reduction in calarogenic hormones accompanies decrease in Basal Metabolic rate, voluntary feed intake, muscular and ruminal activity and changes in release of gonadotrophic hormone and thus reduced sexual activity.
Ability of animals to maintain core temperature in physiological adaptability and the ability to maintain production/reproduction/growth rates in productive adaptability. These two are often at variance.
Thus selection of traits of physiological adaptability is often incompatible with improvement of production and consequently they are undesirable. Mere reproductive opportunism is generally short lived, if the adaptive ness of the organism is not maintained and almost invariably proves self-limiting.
This is not the case with the Ongoles. Long range fitness of ongole cattle population depends on adaptation, through the stability, variability and the rate of environmental changes helped through domestication by the farmers as they are treated as family pets.
Selection of Ongoles, which attain homeothermy mostly by heat loss mechanism without resorting to reducing the heat production would be those of choice from economic view point.

Soil pH:
No larger breeds of livestock were ever bred in acid pH soils. The soil pH being 7.2 in tract most favorable for legumes. So it increased muscle protein and skeletal size. Cattle in acid pH soils are small in size and are shade lovers.
Feeding:
The fodder crops, grasses and trees that supported the breed for centuries need to be enlightened. The fodder crops either grain or crops or crop residues available from sorghum, zeamays, crotalaria, macrotylma, vigna, cicer, pennisestum, sataria, oryza, kollaganjeru, fodder trees like acacia, azaridachta and fiscus are also used to shade trees.
The fodder grasses that were grown naturally on rivers and rivulets banks, private grazing lands and common grazing lands include andropogan, iseilema, indigofera grasses species has maintained this breed for centuries.
After formation of ayacut the Ongole cattle need to go to forest for grazing from June/July and return only after December/January, surviving predation and theft later attending to threshing operations of cereals.
The migration of population from rural to urban areas, changes in society and pressure on land working against the interest of Ongole cattle, since they are located specific the available poor, scanty, sparse, and seasonal fodders which are low in protein and high in fiber need to be improved by inter-cultivation of legumes, intercropping, chaffing, treatment by way of extensive use of agro industrial bye products should be extensively used.
Characters associated with self-reliance:
a) Enduring and estimable.
b) Docile but alert.
c) Intelligent and respond well for treatment if handled with love, skill, and care.
d) Athletic in nature, with majestic appearance, head high, square walk and quick step, giving noble but heavy look.
e) Try to move in groups to avoid predators.
f) Highest ability to self-preserve and longevity is more than 15 years.
g) Long bodied with big skeletal size and with ability to gain weight more perceptible after 2 years of age and massive.
h) Lack in heart girth due to preponderance of draught type.
i) Vitality and Vigor unique in young ones.
j) Outstanding Mothering ability.
k) Highest combining ability for cross breeding and formation of new breeds.
l) Highest rustling ability to walk long distances in search of food and water and to pace with the herds.
m) Marked tolerance to direct sunlight and radiation.
n) Loose skin, hump, dewlap and other appendages contribute 12% excess surface area per unit weight over Taurus breeds.
o) Outward disposition of horns helps defend from predators.
p) Have highest coetaneous and lowest respiratory heat loss as such panting is less.
q) Have highest multiple ability of adaptation for climate fodder and pathogens.
r) Sensitiveness, intelligence and shyness make them more independent and less dependent on man, more energetic and resourceful.
s) Reproductive uniqueness, higher reproduction rates and more number of lifetime calves high calf survival rates.
t) Calving ease and minimum dystokias, with more birth weight of cattle.
Skin:
The skin covers body and provides protection literally a thermostat for the body. Heat flows from core organs like brain, heart, liver, spleen, intestines, and lungs to surface of body and from surface it should be sent out to environment through radiation, conduction and convection.
Skin contains sebascous and sweat glands, muscles, roots of hair, fallacies and capillaries. When all nine blacks are present, the whole skin is pigmented and black. The presence of subcutaneous “panniculus carnosis” muscle helps in repelling vectors through twitching.
When sweating/respiratory heat loss is 6 in zebus where as it is only 4 in Taurus breeds. Water resorption in kidney and colon is double that of the Taurus. Though skin studies were done in 10 indigenous breeds in India no work was done in Ongoles, but the skin type may lie between type 1 and type 3.
Skin being highly vascular more heat is sent out as sensible heat loss or diffusion heat loss. In Ongoles evaporative and sweat contribute much heat loss.
Ongoles cattle skin secretes zebum, which filters ultraviolet rays. Due to high vascular they bleed profusely if punctured and wounds will heal quickly. Being black in color the 15% of solar heat allowed by coat to pass on is at once absorbed by the skin.
Our farmers are so intelligent that umbrellas are black in color but in villages they used to stitch white cloth over the black cloth on the analogy of the structure of Ongole cattle i.e. white external coat and black underlying skin.
During evolutionary process the body temperature has been increased, at the same time tolerance for that temperature failed to take place in male gametes. This was circumvented through effective thermoregulation mechanism of tests

Animal farms

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Animal farms are flourishing business in developing countries. Any individual, employed are unemployed can create the farms as an entertain business, unique requirement is interest.

Farm animals like cows, goats, sheep's, fishes, dogs, emu, pigs, equines and poultry hens, ducks.

Money making in animal farms are as easy as gold business.

Their are two types of earning, immediate and time basis. But any how money is money.

Hardworking and self confidence always have positive development.